Phosphorus Removal and Phytonutrients Retention in the Refining of Solvent Extracted Palm-Pressed Mesocarp Fiber Oil.

Phosphoric acid is used in the refining of palm oil for the removal of phosphatides. The high concentration of phosphorus in solvent extracted palm-pressed mesocarp fiber oil hinders palm oil mills to recover this phytonutrients-rich residual oil in pressed fiber which typically contains 0.1 to 0.2% of total oil yield. This study aimed to refine the palm-pressed mesocarp fiber oil and determine the optimum dosage of phosphoric acid for acid-degumming of palm-pressed mesocarp fiber oil while retaining its phytonutrients. The refining process was carried out with combination of wet degumming, acid degumming, neutralisation, bleaching and deodorization. The optimum dose of phosphoric acid was identified as 0.05 wt.% by incorporating the wet degumming process. The refined palm-pressed mesocarp fiber oil showed a reduction in phosphorus content by 97% (from 901 ppm to 20 ppm) and 97% free fatty acid content removal (from 6.36% to 0.17%), while the Deterioration of Bleachability Index increased from 1.76 to 2.48, which showed an increment of 41%. The refined oil retained the key phytonutrients such as carotenoids (1,150 ppm) and vitamin E (1,540 ppm) that can be further developed into high-value products. The oil meets the quality specification of refined, bleached, and deodorized palm oil while preserving the heat-sensitive phytonutrients, which in turn provides a new resource of nutritious oil.

Exploration of yellow-emitting phosphors for white LEDs from natural resources.

White light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are widely used in various lighting fields as a part of energy-efficient technology. However, some shortcomings of luminescent materials for white LEDs, such as complexity of synthesis, high cost, and harmful impact on the environment, limit their practical applications to a large extent. In this respect, the present work aims to study the ability of using Berberine (BBR) chloride extracted from Rhizoma coptidis and Phellodendron Chinese herbs as yellow phosphor for white LEDs. For this, white LEDs were successfully fabricated by applying 0.006 g of BBR chloride onto the blue LED chips (450 nm). The produced LEDs exhibited good luminescence properties at a voltage of 2.4 V along with eco-friendly characteristics and low cost. The Commission International de l'Eclairage chromaticity, the correlated color temperature, and the color rendering index were determined to be (${x} = {0.32}$, ${y} = {0.33}$), 5934 K, and 74, respectively. Therefore, BBR chloride is a suitable environmentally friendly and easily accessible yellow phosphor for white LEDs.

Characteristics of nutrients removal under partial denitrification initiated by different initial nitrate concentration.

The partial denitrification (PD) is a very promising process developed in the last decade, to study the comprehensive influence of influent carbon to nitrogen (C/N) on the activated sludge system under PD, six sequencing batch reactors (SBRs) were operated in parallel at C/N of 2.75, 3.30, 4.13, 5.50, 8.25 and 16.50, the nitrogen removal, phosphorus removal and sludge settleability of PD were investigated. The results showed that PD was observed treating synthetic wastewater in all the six SBRs, and the nitrite accumulation rate (NAR) was highest at C/N of 5.50 (NAR of 82.30%). However, due to the alternate inhibition of NO2--N and free nitrous acid (FNA) produced by a limited carbon source, both the sludge settleability and phosphorus removal deteriorated. The average SVI at C/N of 8.25 was 130% lower than C/N of 3.30, and the average amount of PO43--P released at C/N of 16.5 was 189% higher than C/N of 2.75. Kinetic analysis showed that the denitrification kinetics of PD and complete denitrification were similar, and the nitrite accumulation was caused by the difference between nitrate reduction rate and nitrite reduction rate. Variations of on-line parameters (pH and ORP) revealed that nitrite accumulation could be indicated by judging the nitrate turning point and nitrite turning point on pH and ORP curves, which provided guidance for the setup of PD.

Performances of simultaneous enhanced removal of nitrogen and phosphorus via biological aerated filter with biochar as fillers under low dissolved oxygen for digested swine wastewater treatment.

This study aims to explore the feasibility of biochar as a carrier to improve the simultaneous removal of nitrogen and phosphorus in biological aerated filters (BAFs) for treating low C/N digested swine wastewater (DSW). Two similar BAFs (BAF-A with hydrophobic polypropylene resin as fillers and BAF-B with bamboo biochar as carrier) were developed for DSW treatment. Results showed that the NH4+-N, TN, and TP removal performances in BAF-B were higher than those in BAF-A. Carrier type had an obvious influence on the structures and diversity of the microbial population. The biochar carrier in BAF-B was conducive to the enrichment of the functional microorganisms and the increase of microbial diversity under high NH4+-N conditions. Microbial analysis showed that the genera Rhodanobacter (10.64%), JGI_0001001-h003 (14.24%), RBG-13-54-9 (8.87%), Chujaibacter (11.27%), and Ottowia were the predominant populations involved in nitrogen and phosphorus removal in the later stage of phase III in BAF-B. BAF with biochar as carrier was highly promising for TN and TP removal in low C/N and high NH4+-N DSW treatment.

The hollow core-shell ferric oxide entrapped chitosan microcapsules as phosphate binders for phosphorus removal in vitro.

Patients in hyperphosphatemia are orally prescribed with phosphate binders to excrete the non-metabolic phosphorus. Aiming for the bio-compatibility and binding efficacy, the Fe-based phosphate binders of low toxicity have been explored and improved. Herein, the hollow core-shell microcapsules as Fe@CH (nano ferric oxide entrapped in the polymerized chitosan) were constructed via emulsion interface polymerization, to enhance the phosphate binding from -NH2 group and iron complex, and limit iron leakage significantly. Via the double emulsion polymerization based on the primary Pickering emulsion stabilized by oleic acid-modified ferric oxide, Fe@CH performed as the rough polymerized-chitosan microcapsules entrapping well-distributed ferric oxide for the phosphate adsorption in vitro. At pH 3 and pH 5, Fe@CH bound phosphorus efficiently, with the capacity of 55 mg/g and 65 mg/g respectively, along with the excellent shell isolation from iron leakage and remarkable safety. Prospectively, the Fe@CH micro-sorbent is the proper candidate as the phosphate binder for hyperphosphatemia.

Potential for Mycorrhizae-Assisted Phytoremediation of Phosphorus for Improved Water Quality.

During this 6th Great Extinction, freshwater quality is imperiled by upland terrestrial practices. Phosphorus, a macronutrient critical for life, can be a concerning contaminant when excessively present in waterways due to its stimulation of algal and cyanobacterial blooms, with consequences for ecosystem functioning, water use, and human and animal health. Landscape patterns from residential, industrial and agricultural practices release phosphorus at alarming rates and concentrations threaten watershed communities. In an effort to reconcile the anthropogenic effects of phosphorus pollution, several strategies are available to land managers. These include source reduction, contamination event prevention and interception. A total of 80% of terrestrial plants host mycorrhizae which facilitate increased phosphorus uptake and thus removal from soil and water. This symbiotic relationship between fungi and plants facilitates a several-fold increase in phosphorus uptake. It is surprising how little this relationship has been encouraged to mitigate phosphorus for water quality improvement. This paper explores how facilitating this symbiosis in different landscape and land-use contexts can help reduce the application of fertility amendments, prevent non-point source leaching and erosion, and intercept remineralized phosphorus before it enters surface water ecosystems. This literature survey offers promising insights into how mycorrhizae can aid ecological restoration to reconcile humans' damage to Earth's freshwater. We also identify areas where research is needed.

Advanced nitrogen and phosphorus removal from municipal wastewater via simultaneous enhanced biological phosphorus removal and semi-nitritation (EBPR-SN) combined with anammox.

In this study, a novel laboratory-scale synchronous enhanced biological phosphorus removal and semi-nitritation (termed as EBPR-SN) combined with anammox process was put forward for achieving nutrient elimination from municipal wastewater at 27 ℃. This process consisted of two 10 L sequencing batch reactors (SBRs), i.e. EBPR-SN SBR followed by Anammox SBR. The EBPR-SN SBR was operated for 400 days with five periods and the Anammox SBR was operated starting on period IV. Eventually, for treating municipal wastewater containing low chemical oxygen demand/nitrogen (COD/N) of 3.2 (mg/mg), the EBPR-SN plus Anammox system performed advanced total inorganic nitrogen (TIN) and P removal, with TIN and P removal efficiencies of 81.4% and 94.3%, respectively. Further analysis suggested that the contributions of simultaneous partial nitrification denitrification, denitrification, and anammox to TIN removal were 15.0%, 45.0%, and 40.0%, respectively. The enriched phosphorus-accumulating organisms (PAOs) in the EBPR-SN SBR facilitated P removal. Besides, the EBPR-SN SBR achieved P removal and provided stable anammox substrates, suggesting a short sludge retention time (SRT 12 d) could achieve synergy between ammonia-oxidizing bacteria and PAOs. These results provided an alternative process for treating municipal wastewater with limited organics.

A new approach to removing and recovering phosphorus from livestock wastewater using dolomite.

Recovering phosphorus from livestock wastewater could partly mitigate the global phosphorus resource crisis. Crystallization is a promising method for removing phosphorus from wastewater, but the costs of calcium- and magnesium-containing reagents are increasing. Cheap, available, efficient materials are required to replace conventional calcium and magnesium reagents. Here, we describe a new approach to removing and recovering phosphorus from livestock wastewater of a large pig farm, containing a high phosphorus concentration. The effects of the pH, stirring speed, stirring time, and extract dose (containing calcium and magnesium) on phosphorus removal from livestock wastewater were investigated. The product was characterized by X-ray diffractometry, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. Under optimized conditions (pH 9.0, stirring speed 200 r/m, stirring time 600 s, Ca 207.62 mg/L, Mg 122.86 mg/L), 92% of the phosphorus was removed from livestock wastewater. The product was mainly the hydroxyapatite (Ca5(PO4)3OH) precursor amorphous calcium phosphate but also contained 1.65% (by mass) magnesium ammonium phosphate (MgNH4PO4·6H2O) crystals. The cost of dolomite to treat 1 m3 of high-phosphorus wastewater was 0.20 yuan (45.9%, 25.9%, and 75.9% lower than for pure MgCl2, MgSO4, and CaCl2, respectively) in 2019. Using dolomite to provide calcium and magnesium effectively decreases the crystallization process cost and should encourage the use of crystallization to remove phosphorus from wastewater.

Microalgae Cultivation Using Screened Liquid Dairy Manure Applying Different Folds of Dilution: Nutrient Reduction Analysis with Emphasis on Phosphorus Removal.

A number of dairies in southern Idaho employed stationary inclined screens to separate large solid particles out of liquid dairy manure. In this way, the total solid content of the liquid dairy manure can drop about 20%. Solids in dairy wastewater cause high turbidities, which could block the incident light, a key factor in the microalgae cultivation process using wastewaters as culture media. In this study, screened liquid dairy manure was used as the microalgae Chlorella vulgaris culture media. The aim was to optimize the dilution folds for the best growth of Chlorella vulgaris and nutrients' reduction with a special focus on phosphorus removal and recovery. Four folds of dilution, designated as 5*, 10*, 15*, 20*, were applied to the liquid dairy manure to alleviate hindrance of the high turbidity together with the high ammonium. Microalgal cultivation removed a significant amount of turbidity and major nutrients. For differently diluted liquid dairy manures, although the initial turbidities varied a lot, the final removal rates were not significantly different, falling in the range of 88.11-91.73%. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) in the 5-fold diluted liquid dairy manure dropped from 6700 to 1200 mg/L, corresponding to a removal rate of 79.81%. For the 10-fold, 15-fold, and 20-fold diluted manures, Chlorella removed around 67-69% of the initial CODs. Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) was removed at rates ranging from 70.84 to 73.99% from the four differently diluted liquid dairy manures without significant differences. NH4-N was removed most efficiently by 88.92% from the 20-fold diluted liquid dairy manure, and the least at 68.65% from the 5-fold diluted one. Although the original total phosphorus (TP) concentrations were distinctive for each group, the TP removal rates stayed in the range of 52.16 to 65.22%. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive spectrometry (EDS) analysis of the precipitates harvested from the microalgal cultivation suggested possible phosphate precipitate forms. The chelation of Ca or Mg cations by dissolved organic matter (DOM) under alkaline conditions caused by microalgae cultivation could explain the unsatisfactory phosphorus removals observed in this study.

Simultaneous denitrification, phosphorus recovery and low sulfate production in a recirculated pyrite-packed biofilter (RPPB).

The simultaneous removal of nitrate (15 mg N-NO3- L-1) and phosphate (12 mg P-PO43- L-1) from nutrient-polluted synthetic water was investigated in a recirculated pyrite-packed biofilter (RPPB) under hydraulic retention time (HRT) ranging from 2 to 11 h. HRT values ≥ 8 h resulted in nitrate and phosphate average removal efficiency (RE) higher than 90% and 70%, respectively. Decrease of HRT to 2 h significantly reduced the RE of both nitrogen and phosphorus. The RPPB showed high resiliency as reactor performance recovered immediately after HRT increase to 5 h. Solid-phase characterization of pyrite granules and backwashing material collected from the RPPB at the end of the study revealed that iron-phosphate, -hydroxide and -sulfate precipitated in the bioreactor. Thermodynamic modeling predicted the formation of S0 during the study. Residence time distribution tests showed semi-complete mixing hydrodynamic flow conditions in the RPPB. The RPPB can be considered an elegant and low-cost technology coupling biological nitrogen removal to the recovery of phosphorus, iron and sulfur via chemical precipitation.

Using Microbial Aggregates to Entrap Aqueous Phosphorus.

The increasing use and associated loss of phosphorus to the environment pose risks to aquatic ecosystems. Technology for phosphorus removal based on microbial aggregates is a natural, ecologically widespread, and sustainable reclamation strategy. Two main processes dominate phosphorus removal by microbial aggregates: extra- and intra-cellular entrapment. Extracellular phosphorus entrapment relies on extracellular polymeric substances, while intracellular entrapment uses a wider variety of phosphorus-entrapping mechanisms. In microbial aggregates, microalgae-bacteria interactions, quorum sensing, and acclimation can enhance phosphorus removal. Based on these insights, we propose novel avenues for entrapping phosphorus using ecological and genetic engineering, manipulated interactions, and integrated processes to create phosphorus removal technology mediated by microbial aggregates.

Synthesis and characterization of magnesium oxide nanoparticle-containing biochar composites for efficient phosphorus removal from aqueous solution.

The effective removal and recovery of phosphorus from aquatic environments are highly important for successful eutrophication control and phosphorus recycling. Herein, we prepared biochar containing MgO nanoparticles (MgO-biochar) by fast pyrolysis of MgCl2-impregnated corn stalks, probed its phosphate adsorption performance. Through the fast pyrolysis, the MgCl2 promoted the formation of micropores and mesoporous, and decomposed into MgO nanoparticles with the size smaller than 100 nm. The adsorption experiments showed that the adsorption property increased with the increase of Mg content, and had a strong correlation with the external surface area. And the phosphate adsorption was well described by the Langmuir-Freundlich model (maximum adsorption capacity was determined as 60.95 mg P/g). Kinetic analysis and characterization analysis of MgO-biochar for different adsorption time indicated that phosphate adsorption onto MgO-biochar was mainly controlled by rapid binding to the external surface (about 75% of the equilibrium adsorption amount), and the uptake rate was limited by the slow diffusion of phosphate into the biochar interior (about 25% of the equilibrium adsorption amount). The results suggested that the synthesized MgO-biochar with enough MgO active site dispersed on a higher external surface can be used as a potential adsorbent for phosphate removal and recovery from aqueous solution.

Effects of individual volatile fatty acids (VFAs) on phosphorus recovery by magnesium ammonium phosphate.

Volatile fatty acids (VFAs) are a major component of dissolved organic matter in alkaline fermentation supernatants. In this study, effects of different VFAs (acetate, propionate, and butyrate) on phosphorus recovery, as magnesium ammonium phosphate (MgNH4PO4·6H2O, or MAP), were studied. Results showed that optimal pH was 9.5 and MAP purity was ∼70% in VFA-free wastewater. With VFA addition, MAP purities of precipitates were higher, reaching 75%-85%. The crystalline characterization of precipitates suggested that VFAs had a weak complexation ability with Mg2+ and NH4+. Further, pH changes during the MAP crystallization process were monitored and results indicated VFAs only contributed to the alkalinity condition, which, in turn, improved the MAP crystallization process. These data provide for a better understanding of P recovery by MAP precipitates from VFA-rich fermented supernatants.

Understanding the biochemical characteristics of struvite bio-mineralising microorganisms and their future in nutrient recovery.

The biochemical properties of selected microorganisms (Bacillus pumilus, Brevibacterium antiquum, Myxococcus xanthus, Halobacterium salinarum and Idiomarina loihiensis), known for their ability to produce struvite through biomineralisation, were investigated. All five microorganisms grew at mesophilic temperature ranges (22-34 °C), produced urease (except I. loihiensis) and used bovine serum albumin as a carbon source. I. loihiensis was characterised as a facultative anaerobe able to use O2 and NO3 as an electron acceptor. A growth rate of 0.15 1/h was estimated for I. loihiensis at pH 8.0 and NaCl 3.5% w/v. The growth rates for the other microorganisms tested were 0.14-0.43 1/h at pH 7-7.3 and NaCl ≤1% w/v. All the microorganisms produced struvite, as identified by morphological and X-ray Powder Diffraction (XRD) analysis, under aerobic conditions. The biological struvite yield was between 1.5 and 1.7 g/L of media, the ortho-phosphate removal and recovery were 55-76% and 46-54%, respectively, the Mg2+ removal and recovery was 92-98% and 83-95%, respectively. Large crystals (>300 µm) were observed, with coffin-lid and long-bar shapes being the dominant morphology of biological struvite crystals. The characterisation of the biochemical properties of the studied microorganisms is critical for reactor and process design, as well as operational conditions, to promote phosphorus recovery from waste streams.

Startup and stable operation of advanced continuous flow reactor and the changes of microbial communities in aerobic granular sludge.

In this study, the granular sludge was operated under low aeration condition in sequencing batch reactor (SBR) and advanced continuous flow reactor (ACFR), respectively. Through increasing the sludge retention time (SRT) from 22 days to 33 days, the ACFR was successful startup in 30 days and achieved long term stable operation. Under SBR operation condition, the aerobic granular sludge (AGS) showed good nitrogen (60%), phosphorus (96%) and COD removal performance. During stable operation of continuous-flow, the nitrogen removal efficiency was increasing to 70%, however, the phosphorus removal efficiency could only be restored to 65%. Meanwhile, the sludge discharge volume from ACFR was about half of that in SBR. Results of high-throughput pyrosequencing illustrated that methanogenic archaea (MA), ammonia oxidizing archaea (AOA), denitrifying bacteria (DNB), denitrifying polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (DPAOs) played an important role in the removal of nutrients in ACFR. This study could have positive effect on the practical application of AGS continuous flow process for simultaneous biological nutrient removal (SBNR).

Waste Brick as Constructed Wetland Fillers to Treat the Tail Water of Sewage Treatment Plant.

Adopting the concept of "using waste to treat waste", the waste bricks will be used for constructed wetland filling. Integrated vertical-flow constructed wetland (IVCW) studied on the purification effect in influent water under three hydraulic loads (0.15, 0.25, 0.35 m/day). The results show that the waste bricks can be used as the carrier for the growth of the system biofilm, and have positive effects on the removal of pollutants in the influent water. Under three different hydraulic load conditions, the vertical flow of CWs can significantly reduce the load of water intake. In the low hydraulic load condition of 0.15 m/day, the average removal rates of chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N), total nitrogen (TN), and total phosphorus (TP) can reach 66.52%, 72.10%, 56.53% and 91.55% in this system, respectively. The influent pool on removal efficiency of pollutants was obviously higher than that of the upper pool, especially in the inlet surface 0-30 cm ranges. This research has achieved the effect of using "waste" to treat wastewater, which has strong practical significance and popularization value.

Non-airtight Fermentation of Dairy Manure with Waste Potato Peels and Subsequent Phosphorus Recovery via Struvite Precipitation.

Two-phase anaerobic co-digestion of lignocellulosic crop residues with animal wastes can efficiently generate more biogas compared with the digestion of animal waste alone. Non-airtight fermentation of the mixed substrates is the primary step to hydrolyze complex organics and achieve simultaneous phosphorus release. Recycling phosphorus from tremendous animal wastes is remarkably meaningful regarding non-renewable resource recovery. In this study, the feasibility of a two-step process combining non-airtight fermentation of potato peels with dairy manure and the following struvite precipitation was explored. The hydrolysis and acidification process of the 6-day non-airtight mesophilic fermentation lowered pH to 6.4 under the highest mixed solid content of 4.8%; meanwhile, the ratio of reactive phosphorus to total phosphorus increased from 49.6 to 93.7% accordingly. Struvite formation was successfully induced by adjusting pH to 8.0 and 9.5. Under these two pHs, the precipitates were dominated by struvite as characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD). Scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive spectrometry (SEM-EDS) results indicated that there should exist both struvite and calcium phosphate in the precipitates obtained under the two pHs. pH 8.0 precipitate should contain around 75% struvite, while the proportion rose to about 90% for pH 9.5 precipitate, based on the calculation of respective Mg/P and Ca/P molar ratios.

Performance enhancement by adding ferrous to a combined modified University of Cape Town and post-anoxic/aerobic-membrane bioreactor.

The removal of nutrients in a combined modified University of Cape Town and post-anoxic/aerobic-membrane bioreactor (UCT-A/MBR) was investigated. Denitrifying phosphorus removal (DPR) and nitrate-dependent anaerobic ferrous oxidation (NAFO) were applied to enhance the nutrient removal performances. The results showed that NAFO with the addition of Fe(II) and DPR could promote nitrogen and phosphorus removal. The total nitrogen removal efficiency gradually increased from 71.05 ±â€¯2.00% to 73.84 ±â€¯1.74% and 75.70 ±â€¯1.47% with no Fe(II) addition, addition to the post-anoxic tank, and addition to the anoxic tank, and the total phosphorus removal efficiency increased from 89.37 ±â€¯1.91% to 95.21 ±â€¯0.85% and 96.01 ±â€¯1.10%, respectively. Gene sequencing was conducted, and Saprospiraceae was determined to be the dominant DPR-related bacteria, with its abundance increasing from 16.31% to 22.45% after Fe(II) addition. Additionally, the proportion of the NAFO-related bacteria Azospira increased from 0.58% to 1.91% after Fe(II) addition. The microbial succession caused by the addition of Fe(II) may have resulted in the enhanced removal performance.

Diclofenac inhibited the biological phosphorus removal: Performance and mechanism.

This work aims to evaluate the effect of new contaminant diclofenac (DCF) in sewage on the performance of Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal (EBPR) and its mechanism. The results showed that low-level DCF had no significant effect on EBPR. However, when the concentration of DCF was 2.0 mg/L, the removal efficiencies of chemical oxygen demand (COD), NH4+-N and soluble orthophosphate (SOP) decreased significantly to 71.2 ± 4.2%, 78.6 ± 2.9%, and 64.3 ± 4.2%, respectively. Mechanisms revealed that DCF promoted the ratio of protein to polysaccharide in activated sludge extracellular polymers and inhibited anaerobic phosphorus release and oxic phosphorus uptake. Intracellular polymer analysis showed that when the DCF content was 2.0 mg/L, the maximum content of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) was only 2.5 ± 0.4 mmol-C/g VSS, which was significantly lower than that in the blank. Analysis of key enzyme activities indicated that the presence of DCF reduced the activities of exopolyphosphatase and polyphosphate kinase.

A synergic approach for nutrient recovery and biodiesel production by the cultivation of microalga species in the fertilizer plant wastewater.

The combination of wastewater treatment and biodiesel production using algal cultivation was studied in the present work. The two main goals of the work were achieved by the cultivation of freshwater microalgae such as Chlamydomonas sp., Scenedesmus ecornis, and Scenedesmus communis in two different dilutions of fertilizer plant wastewater (FWWD1 and FWWD2) collected from Yara Suomi Oy, Finland. The growth pattern of different algal species in FWWD1 and FWWD2 was observed. The effect of pH on biomass concentration, lipid content, biomass productivity, and lipid productivity by all three algal species in FWWD1 and FWWD2 were monitored. The maximum biomass concentration and productivity were observed in FWWD1 at pH7.5 for Chlamydomonas sp. and at pH 8.5 for S. ecornis and S. communis. The maximum lipid content was detected in Chlamydomonas sp at pH5.5, followed by S. ecornis and then S. communis at pH 7.5 in FWWD2 obtained after co-solvent extraction method. The most significant removal percentage of COD by all algal species were observed in FWWD1, whereas the highest removal percentage of TN and TP were detected in FWWD2, respectively. The fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) characterization of each algal species in FWWD1 and FWWD2 at their optimum pH was investigated to determine the quality of obtained biodiesel.